Psychological Models of Health

Psychological Models of Health Module Title: Sociology and Psychology and Public Health Part 1 Literature Review Health behaviour can be described as behaviour aimed to prevent or detect disease (Kasl and Cob, 1966). Models of health behaviour have been developed to understand how people make decisions about their health and predict the likelihood that health behaviour change will occur. This essay will aim to review a number of established health behaviour models focusing on Cognition Models, Social Cognition Models and Stage Models in relation to public health and health promotion interventions. Cognition Models The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a cognition model originally developed by Hochbaum in the 1950’s with later versions of the model being added in the 70’s (Rosenstock 1966; 1974) (cited by Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). The HBM is based on the probability that individuals are influenced by a threatened disease or illness based on a belief that they are vulnerable to a condition; there would be consequences of the condition if no action was taken; that they can prevent a condition developing by taking action; or the benefits of reducing risk of developing a condition are greater than the cost of taking action (add reference). This model was originally developed to predict the participation in screening tests and vaccination programmes with the focus on single preventative behaviours, more recently it has been used in areas of lifestyle behaviours which may sometimes involve life-long behaviours (Baranowski, Cullen, Nicklas, Thompson, Baranowski, 2003) various studies su ch as Abraham and Sheeran (1994) have questioned the appropriateness of using the HBM as a perceived threat to motivate behaviour with some groups, for example, groups of children and adolescent who assume they will live forever (Baranowski et al., 2003). Other critiscisms of the HBM are that it is too focused on the individual and does not consider social, economic and emotional factors (Strecher et al, 1997). In response to criticism the HBM has been adapted to include self-efficacy and health motivation (Ogden, 2012). The Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) developed by Rogers 1975/1985 (cited in Ogden, 2012 pg 50), expands on the Health Belief Model with the addition of emotional factors such as, introducing an element of fear. The framework of PMT is based on using the appeal of fear to influence attitudes and behaviours. The research for the model was centered on the fear-drive model which sees fear as a force by which to motivate trial and error behaviour (Conner Norman, 2008/2005). A study (Wu, Stanton, Li, Galbraith, Cole, 2005) that used PMT to establish health motivation and risk involvement, was successful in using PMT to predict behavioural intention in a variety of behavioural areas such as, smoking cessation, exercise and diet, cancer prevention and condom protection to name but a few. PMT has not received the same level of criticism as HBM however, many criticisms of the HBM also relate to PMT, largely in that it does not allow for social and environmental factors (Ogden 2012, pg 52) Social Cognition Models The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajken, 1975) or in its extended form Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajken, 1988) are formed based on the idea that the greatest predictor of behaviour is of behavioural intention (Ogden, 2012). The TPB model is used widely in health fields (Armitage and Conner 2001; Taylor et al. 2007). In addition to attitudes, for example, exercise is fun and will improve my health, the TRA added subjective norms, using the perception of social pressure to perform a behaviour, for example, a desire to please others and gain approval. The TPB adapted the TRA model by adding a concept of perceived behavioural control, which is the individuals perception as to whether the behaviour will be easy or difficult, the concept is similar to Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy (Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). Both models are used in many areas of health promotion in relation to behaviour change, in current UK policy setting they can be found in exercise intentions; weight gain prevention and eating behaviour; addiction related behaviours; HIV prevention and condom use (Taylor, 2006). The TRA model has been used to show patterns of behaviours such as fat, salt and milk intake whereas the TPB model was used to give details of attitudes and beliefs about starchy foods in the UK (Stubenitsky Mela, 2000). The TPB and TRA differ from the HBM and PMT models in that they have added an element of social and environmental factors by including normative beliefs. Criticisms of the TPB and TRA focus on methods used to test theory and the extent at which they can predict behaviour (Ogden, 2012). Stage Models Transtheoretical Stages of Change Model and Precaution Adoption Process Model The Transtheoretical model (TTM) was developed in the 1980’s by a group of researchers at the University of Rhode Island. TTM was first used in smoking cessation in studies carried out by DiClemente and Prochaska (1982), and is often referred to as simply the stages of change model. The model suggests that health related behaviour change occurs through five stages know as: Pre-contemplation; contemplation; preparation; action and maintenance (Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). Movement or transition through the stages is driven by self-efficacy (the confidence in oneself to change behaviour) and decisional balance (weighing up the costs or benefits to the behaviour), relapsing backward and forwards through the stages is also common (Morris, Marzano, Dandy and O’Brien, 2012). Since 1985 application of the TTM has influenced service planning, provision and training agendas at local, regional and national levels (Bunton, Baldwin, Flynn, Whitelaw, 2000). Bunton et.al, (2000) r emarks on the rise in popularity of the TTM. Examples of areas where TTM has been used include studies in the area of dietary changes, exercise and activity promotion, sexually transmitted disease and pregnancy prevention (cited in Morris, Marzano, Dandy and O’Brien, 2012). Limitations of the model have been suggested by Conner and Norman (2008, pg 247) in that fundamental problems with the definition and measurement of the stages are present. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) First suggested by Weinstein (1988) and further refined by Weinstein and Sandman (1992) the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) specifies seven stages ranging from ignorance to maintenance of the behaviour. The first stage is, unawareness of issue; second, unengaged by issue; third, deciding about acting; fourth, deciding not to act; fifth, decided to act; sixth, acting; and finally seventh, the maintenance stage. Although similar in some ways, the difference between the PAPM and the TTM is the extra stages, PAPM has 2 additional stages which includes the decided not to act stage which makes a clear distinction between having never thought about adopting a precaution before and having thought about it but deciding not to act (Conner Norman, 2008/2005). Other advantages of the PAPM are that it allows for messages to be tailored at each stage of the model which is helpful in situations where resistance to change is high and its simple questioning method makes it suitable for both individual and group settings, Weinstein Sandman (2002), (The Free Library, 2014). In summary each model has its own unique aspects References Abraham, C., Sheeran, P. (1994). Modelling and modifying young heterosexuals HIV-preventive behaviour; a review of theories, findings and educational implications. Patient Education and Counseling, 23(3), 173-186. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0738-3991(94)90033-7 Armitage, E, C.J. Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471-99. Baranowski, T., Cullen, K. W., Nicklas, T., Thompson, D., Baranowski, J. (2003). Are Current Health Behavioral Change Models Helpful in Guiding Prevention of Weight Gain Efforts? Obesity Research, 11(S10), 23S-43S. doi: 10.1038/oby.2003.222 Becker MH. The health belief model and personal health behavior. Health Education Monographs. 1974;2:324-473. Bunton, R., Baldwin, S., Flynn, D., Whitelaw, S. (2000). The ‘stages of change’ model in health promotion: Science and Ideology. Critical Public Health, 10(1), 55-70. doi: 10.1080/713658223 Morris, J., Marzano, M., Dandy, N. O’Brien, L. (2012). Theories and models of behaviour and behaviour change. Forest Research, Theories: Behaviour Change Report Rosenstock IM. The health belief model: explaining health behavior through expectancies In: Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK, eds. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice. Stretcher, V., Rosenstock, I.M. (1997). The Health Belief Model. In K. Glanz, F.M. Lewis, B.K. Rimer (Eds.) Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stubenitsky K, Mela DJ (2000) UK consumer perceptions of starchy foods. British Journal of Nutrition 83: 277-285. Taylor, D., Bury, M., Campling, N., Carter, S., Garfield, S., Newbould, J. Rennie, T. (2007). A Review of the use of the Health Belief Model (HBM), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) to study and predict health related behaviour change. Taylor, D., (2006). Review of the use of the Health Belief Model (HBM), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) to study and predict health related behaviour change. The Department of Practice and Policy. The School of Pharmacy, University of London The Free Library, Precaution Adoption Process Model: need for experimentation in alcohol and drug education.. (n.d.) >The Free Library. (2014). Retrieved Jan 15 2015 from:http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Precaution+Adoption+Process+Model%3a+need+for+experimentation+in-a0169677077 Wu, Y., Stanton, B. F., Li, X., Galbraith, J., Cole, M. L. (2005). Protection Motivation Theory and Adolescent Drug Trafficking: Relationship Between Health Motivation and Longitudinal Risk Involvement. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(2), 127-137. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsi001 Part 2 Case Study This case study is based on Chris, a 40 year old man. Chris is aware he has some health issues. However, recent marital breakdown has resulted in a disruption to his home and family life and he is lacking the motivation and self confidence to make positive changes which he knows will benefit his health. I will look at how applying health psychology can be used to motivate and change Chris’s behaviour. The notion of motivation and self-efficacy can be found in most models of health behaviour (Ogden, 2012). Since Chris is already aware of his health situation and has made some steps i.e. visiting the doctor, to discuss his symptoms and circumstances, therefore, the Transtheoretical Stages of Change Model will be what I am focusing on during this case study. Based on the five stages of change of the Transtheoretical change model Chris would be between stage 1 Pre-contemplation and stage 2 Contemplation. The main aim will be to get Chris from the Contemplation stage to the Preparation stage and beyond. At this Pre-contemplation-Contemplation stage motivational interviewing may be helpful. Chris has children whom he sees at the weekend, children are a great excuse for exercise. Talk about the health behaviours that impact the children exercise/diet, they have a sedentary lifestyle when they visit, this would be an ideal time to engage with Chris and get him to address the lack of exercise, poor diet by using the time he spends at the weekend with the children. Questions such as, what other activities would you and the children enjoy? Encourage and motivate through listening to Chris’s own motivations for change. By working through decisional balance, helping Chris to see how the pros of lifestyle behaviour change can outweigh the cons. With each stage self-efficacy will improve helping to motivate Chris to abstain from unhealthy patterns. What needs to be changed? Setting the agenda – there are several factors that Chris faces, many which could be improved by diet, exercise and smoking, but social and emotional factors must be taken into consideration. Through motivational interviewing Chris can identify what his priorities are. This is also a good time to provide advice based on health statistics, for instance combining smoking with a healthier diet and more exercise will reduce his risk of coronary heart disease (NHS Choices). Adopting an exercise pattern into daily life can reduce blood pressure, (Blood Pressure UK) easier to start off with small exercise sessions and build up gradually. Areas for management Plan to include: Exercise: Suggest exercise plan which includes family activities, swimming, cycling (NHS.UK/livewell/fitness), (NHS.uk/letsgetmoving) Diet: Cut down on takeaways, suggest alternative treats to replace the usual weekend takeaway food, and cooking together with the children a great way to learn and motivate, provide nutritional information/guidelines for salt, fat and sugar intake and suggest ways to set achievable targets Smoking: Cutting down on smoking to reduce major health risks Social: To join fitness clubs based on interests and ability References Blood Pressure UK http://www.bloodpressureuk.org/BloodPressureandyou/Yourlifestyle/Beingactive NHS Choices. Coronary Heart Disease Prevention http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Prevention.aspx 1

Alice in Wonderland Essay example -- Essays Papers

Alice in Wonderland Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, a story about a little girl and her adventures in a dream-like place called wonderland, has been a beloved children’s story for over one hundred years. Though viewed by many as a simple children’s tale, if it is taken into a little more depth one will find that is a brilliant satire on the English system of government. Indeed, Alice in Wonderland is a brilliant novel written by a brilliant author. The main character of this novel is Alice. Throughout the story she has conflicts with many of the characters along with herself. Her main conflict is to return home from Wonderland and to become an adult. While she is in Wonderland she is faced with many other, not so important conflicts. Most of them are choices that may lead her to people or places that she might or might not want to meet or see. Throughout the story there are many supporting characters that both help and hinder Alice during journey through Wonderland. The first character that Alice first comes in contact with is the White Rabbit. As a character he is always in a rush, this is made apparent throughout the story. Alice first sees him while he is on the way to Wonderland. She chooses to follow him, and she falls down a rabbit hole, thus finding the entrance to Wonderland. The only other character that was influential in my opinion was the The Queen of Hearts. The Queen is a very bitter person. She made everyone aro...

Free College Admissions Essays: Law, Politics, and Skepticism :: College Admissions Essays

My summer internship at United States Senator Connie Mack's office, my recent volunteer efforts for a local school board campaign, and my previous volunteer efforts for a gubernatorial campaign are representative of my personal interests and long-range goals. My future ambitions and goals are evidence of my interests in and attraction to such subjects as law and politics. While many people consider these subjects to be uninteresting, I am fascinated by how these topics affect our society.    Therefore, it is my desire to study political science while in undergraduate school and then continue my education by attending law school and earning a degree in constitutional law. Ultimately, however, it is my desire to have a career in politics. I sincerely believe that by being actively involved in politics, government and law, I will become better equipped to defend our Judeo-Christian faith from modern skepticism and also better able to serve our nation.    Other unrelated interests of mine include athletics, particularly cross-country running and basketball, drama, music, and reading.    As far as strengths are concerned, I am respectful of others and their feelings, self-disciplined, considerate, appreciative, and goal-oriented. Also, I sincerely believe in the commandments and moral standards set forth in the Scriptures and try to live accordingly, which I hope makes me a Godly example to my peers. I wish to become even more Christlike and grow to be a man of unquestionable integrity. My weaknesses include difficulty expressing my emotions and a tendency to be a little self-conscious.    I am seriously interested in Harvard   due to its advocacy of traditional values and principles upon which our nation was founded.

Education: Receiving or Claiming? Essay

In Adrienne Rich’s â€Å"Claiming an Education† Rich presents the argument of claiming an education. In the United States claiming an education often seems far-fetched. Education is not free and not for everyone, or is it? Claiming an education sounds a lot like taking what’s rightfully yours. Do you receive an education for society or does society present it for a student to take? Rich seems to think that education is presented for those willing to claim it. â€Å"The first thing I want to say to you who are students, is that you cannot afford to think of being here to receive an education; you will do much better to think of yourselves as being here to claim one.† (Rich) Perception is everything when entering the world of education. This powerful quote from Rich’s article sets the stage for any student’s performance in their education career. Receiving is thought as a collaboration process. Rich explains that receiving is to come into posse ssion of or provided to someone in a receptacle manor. The concept of learning involves one how is willing to teach and one who is willing to learn. If a professor is willing to teach, it’s still up to the student to learn. Learning is a matter of taking advantage of the resources provided. Rich relates the majority of her article to women’s education. Women have the odds against them in our society. Society tells them to be mothers and homemakers and not pursue their education to the fullest. This may be because in our society the man is thought of to be the provider by working to provide for his family. In order to provide to the fullest in our society, it requires a higher level of education. Education provides the natural incentive of making more money by gaining trust from employers. This trust comes from the employee investing in his or her own education. Rich seems to go against the grain and show her women audience that they should claim what is rightfully theirs. Rich explains that there has been in increase in women seeking out their education but not giving back what was rightfully given to them. â€Å"We still see very few women in the upper levels in faculty and administration†. (Rich) Rich explains that even all women colleges are ran by men. This seems interesting because Rich is encouraging women to claim their education. Claiming something from my perspective means  to take and not look back. Receiving means that someone may have to given something they have away. If women were teachers and administrators, women would feel better about receiving an education from another woman. Would receiving an education be appropriate for this idea? Rich’s argument is summed up when she informs the reader that the idea of claiming an education can be embraced by any sex, race, color or creed. â€Å"Responsibility to yourself means refusing to let others do your thinking, talking and naming for you; it means learning to respect and use your own brains and instincts; hence, grappling with hard work†. (Rich) Education is not for everyone but it is there for the ones willing to take it. Rich provokes her reader by letting telling them to dicover their own jurney to education. We live in a society that embraces abstract thinking and making something out of nothing. Rich’s article is even reflected in this day and age. Our society is full of inventors and inovators. Making something out of nothing is what are you is good at. Finding answers to complex yet interesting problems become a compeitive challenge for most. With the wave of an internet society and and creative clulture, Rich’s abstract idea of claiming in education almost seems like common knownledge now. The you are seeing education as an opportunity rather than a trap. If the finitial element was taken out of the equation, their would be even more oppotunites for students to claim their education. I took advantage of my opportunity when it was presented to me five years ago. I was at loss for a crareer and I h ad just changed my life. Durning this time I made a decision to take a look at all the negitive things that were consuming my life. I had just gotten sober and needed to reenvent myself. I had tons of negitive beliefs about education. I thought I was not smart enough, too old, I thought I didn’t have enough money and that it was not the right time for me. All those negitive and passive thoughts got in the way of me putting off my education. This was not the case when a friend suggested that I could utilize my own expierence to help others. I stated to take classes in psychology and counseling. I wanted to be of service to others stuggling with the same issues I once had struggled with. I claimed my education by taking one class at a time untill I felt comfortable with a full load of cources. I received a few good grades and it helped me change my beiliefs on my education. I had such low self esteem when it came to accademics. I used to hate letting other students grade my  work in fear that they wou ld think that I was remedial. I also hated working in groups because I feared that other students would judge me. It took time for me to feel comfortable with my abilities. Once I finally felt comfortable, the thoughts of furthering my education seemed endless. I don’t think anyone gave me my education. I saw the opportunity and took advatage of it. I feel that reciving an education takes some loss of self will. If there was only one type of school or subject I would feel that I’m receiving an education and not claiming it. There are so many subjects and avenues a student can take. I claimed my education in socilogy and counseling. I blended all the subjects together to make my own education. All of the subjects were presented to me so I just calimed the ones that I wanted. Rich’s article put a whole new prespective on my thoughts about the education system. I feel that everyone should be able to claim their education without being questioned or persuated in any way. Women in particualar have a hard time with this in are society. I feel that not much has chaged since the time Rich wrote her article till now. Women still are not seen as equals in the field of higher education. There are not to many women professors or deens. I think our society has a lot to do with it. Women are expected to have many of the same interests. There seems to be a lot of pressure for women to get in the field of cosmotology or fashion design. Advertizing makes it look apealing and desireable to them. Even telavion shows display powerful women in theres areas. They never show powerful women in congress or in the medical field. If our society glorified those areas of study for women, we would see a lot more women in college. Rich provided a great argument. I deffintly agree with her idea about claimig an education. Although in our country not all education is free. Some education pthas are hard to claim without money. Typicicly you don’t see many doctors who come from poverty. I still question why that is. Is it because people who come from poverty are not as capable as people who are not? Or is it because they don’t have the fintial recources to receive their higher education? An education is there if one chooses to take it. No one is going to hand out an education. It takes the willingness to learn and the sacrafic to succeed. Education is not for everyone but it is for anyone. Women and men of all races and ages should consider claiming their education. Rich’s artial is a great inspiration to anyone seeking knowedge.  Rich reinforces that one should not listen to what other say and do what makes you happy. The next time someone askes me where I went to school at I’m going to say, I claimed my education at San Bernardino Valley College. Works Cited Rich, Adrienne. â€Å"Claiming an Education.† The Common Women(1977).

History of Globalization

Globalization history Name: Institution: Scientist may approximate when the world was formed but people do not know how true this is. However, one thing is very clear; the way of our lives have changed from the most primitive to very a very advanced. Presently in the world there are sectors that are more developed more than others owing to some reasons. Globalization is responsible for all these developments that have occurred at different paces (Appadurai, 2003). Globalization is the difference of time and the evolution of world.Hence its’ a term used to explain how the world is today, and changes that have occurred right from the ancient days to the present day. In a superficial description, globalization is a phenomenon that has produced fundamental changes within societies. It covers a range of social, economic and political changes. Thus, global history focuses on the human history and historic developments from many past decades, though to some people it is a product of modern forces of change which cannot be projected all the way back to the old decades.Globalization is no more set in stone than global history and concept; it is accompanied by other concepts like information society, post industrial age, post modern age, and so on. Globalization is not a member of an archive in history, but it remains more of an explanatory, overarching concept for a series of actual processes of transformation. Globalization is a process that, for a long time, has been evolving. Different ideas and new developments are discovered as time pass (Teichmann, 2003). The economy, politics culture and military complexes follow their trends.Though all these depend on where they are situated, the time and social class. Therefore globalization is an open process that transforms the economic, political, social, cultural and military institutions, which may be organizations like the church, state, family, companies and so forth. The major roles of globalization are the expan sion concentration and acceleration of worldwide relations. One of its characteristics is its influence on everything covered by rubric of culture. The cultural globalization is normally driven by the communication technology and worldwide marketing of western cultural industries.This was understood at the first process of normalization, as the global domination of Americans. It was at the expense of the traditional diversity. Then there was a difference and movements that started protesting against globalization and supporting local uniqueness, individuality and identity. The movements used same technologies to pursue their own goal and they would ask for the world’s opinion. Roland Robertson termed this as â€Å"Univesalization† (Global policy forum, 2005). Globalization is traced far back in the emergence of Homo sapiens and the migration out of Africa to the world.Globalization is suggested as the process of migration was the central globalization driver, as it lin ked processes of demographic expansion and increasing density of human habitation. Through this, the population increased and the intermingling of different people brought some old behaviors to an end. There is a near endless array of things that can be done to deal with global political problems, but space constraints have always limited us to issues of accountability and transparency. And people adapted to new adaptations, which are not constant and they vary with time.Through globalization the results of cultural change can be interpreted as hybridity. This means that new cultural elements being creatively adapted to mesh with existing ones and the people gradually adopt to the swiftly changing behavior. Most authors have described globalization as a fundamental change of categories of time and space, extensive use of electronic mail and the reduction in telephone fees has created and shared immediacy and a virtual togetherness, produces fundamentals for worldwide social relation s. This has increased speed of communication.In the economic globalization, there has been advancement in modes of transportation and technology, which have given free market ideology which has brought about fair trades and services. Supply and demand have become very effective due to the liberation of market sources from governmental regulations. Most countries have taken the advantage of globalization. There is also the advantageous use of the international financial institutions and regional trade agreements for assisting poor countries to reduce tariffs, to privatize state enterprises, and relax environmental and labor standards.The results increase in profits for investors but offered pittances to laborers (Ritzer, 2010). There has been improvement in the world of agriculture as compared to historic days for instance the people of Mesopotamia used to use the ‘shadoff’ method of irrigation, through globalization better methods have been researched and developed like the use of water sprinklers, drip irrigation method just to mention. More so there has been the development of high breed seed that assist the farmers get high yields of harvest.There are machinery powers that are used like the use tractors in ploughing the land and use combined harvesters to harvest wheat. This has drastically slowed down some cruel businesses like the slave trade and also slavery. In the traditional era, politics was conducted by the national governments, who were responsible for maintaining security and economic welfare of its citizens, land issues and also the human rights. Through globalization changes have occurred and this has forced the political activity to change also.Politics has taken place through political integration schemes like united nations (U. N), European Union NGOs ,World bank and international monetary fund, just to mention, more so civil societies organizations act all over the world by forming alliances with organizations in other countries instead of working through their governments. There will always be differences of the globalization ideas, being a series of academic literatures, across political, economy and social science that are more specifically concerned with post second international economic development and politics.Globalization theories see the process as driven by multiple transformations in human life, and it’s very difficult to unpick the factor which tends to be a key driver. Though that does not mean we at times are militant opponents of globalization. Globalization is reflexive to people; people self consciously orient themselves to the world. For example, in businesses people explore global markets. People meet in trade fairs. There are inter marriages, inter social mingling, people change ideas and also communication sighs.Globalization contributes to human trafficking, most people through migrations, as people form 3rd world countries want to migrate to well develop countries in such of employment. Then if they fail to get the job they involve themselves with immorality. Also globalization encourages conflicts among different communities, as some communities wants to pose greater than others. This superiority and minority complexes leads to misunderstandings amongst people which lead to tribal wars and so on.On the merit side of globalization, it has brought people through intermingling and there is advancement of communication and information technologies in that References Appadurai, A. (2003). Globalization. Durham [u. a. : Duke Univ. Press. Global policy forum. (2005). Globalization of the Economy. Retrieved March 29, 2013 from http://www. globalpolicy. org/globalization/globalization-of-the-economy-2-1. html Ritzer, G. (2010). Globalization: A basic text. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Teichmann, I. (2003). Globalization. North Mankato, Minn: Smart Apple Media.

The role of nuclear medicine and other imaging modalities in Article - 1

The role of nuclear medicine and other imaging modalities in hyperthyrodism - Article Example In clinical practice different hyperthyroid conditions such as Graves’ disease, hyperthyroid goiter, and other conditions such as toxic multinodular or nodular goitre need assessment of activity of the gland. In this review, contemporary literature has been reviewed to update current knowledge on this topic. This assignment reveals that radionuclide imaging is an important diagnostic modality in the workup of hyperthyroid disorders, but despite that, in some cases the diagnostic yield is better with ultrasonography or PET scanning. In some cases, combined use of these imaging investigations pinpoints the diagnosis in a more suitable manner. Review of these articles and the knowledge apparent may be used to frame a guideline of advice regarding imaging practice in this area. The thyroid gland produces two hormones, namely, thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are known to play important physiological roles in the human body. Anatomically, the thyroid gland is located in the neck, in front of the trachea. It comprises of two lobes, right and left, connected by a narrow bridge of thyroid tissue, known as isthmus. It is a very highly vascular organ. The normal adult thyroid gland consists of follicles lined by thyroid follicular cells that contain large amount of thyroglobulin. This serves as the protein precursor of the thyroid hormones (Broome, 2006). Endocrinologically, increased need for thyroid hormone leads to a signal pathway mediated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) leading to release of active hormone from a bound state with thyroglobulin to a free state, eventually being secreted into the blood stream. When there is hypersecretion of thyroid hormones due to any cause, the condition is known as hyperthyroidism. Usually hyperthyroidis m is indicated by an elevated level of TSH. Therefore, in clinical practice the diagnosis of hyperthyroidism is made by finding an abnormally elevated TSH level which

Locate a news article about POVERTY in order to conduct a Term Paper

Locate a news article about POVERTY in order to conduct a meta-analysis of the author's economic perspective of the issue - Term Paper Example The New York Times Article Food Stamps Helped Reduce Poverty Rate, Study Shows† is a good economic issue (ref: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/10/us/food-stamp-program-helping-reduce-poverty.html?_r=1) 1. In terms of providing a brief overview / synopsis of the economic issue, the article shows that the Agriculture Department mentioned food stamps continue to reduce the poverty level of the United States. The food stamps are also known as Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program or SNAP. The food stamps project benefitted more than 45,000,000 individuals in the nation. Specifically, the food stamps program raised the average below poverty line individual’s income six percent nearer to the poverty line. 2. In terms of discussing the model or economic theory that relates to the issue presented in the news article, the economic theory that relates to the issue in the news article is demand principle. The economic theory dictates that â€Å"as the prices of goods and services increase, the demand for products and services decrease.† The theory also states that the demand for the products and services increases as the price of goods and services decline. The people who have enough money to pay for the goods and services will be the ones willing to buy the goods and services. As the prices of the goods or services increase, some of the people can no longer afford to buy the previously lower priced goods or services. Thus, the people who can no longer afford to buy the higher priced goods and services are forced to shift to the competitors’ lower priced goods and services.... Ronald King (King, 2000) theorizes â€Å"The Food Stamp Act of 1964 authorized the secretary of agriculture â€Å"to formulate and administer ‘a program under which â€Å"eligible households within the State shall be provided with an opportunity more nearly to obtain a nutritionally adequate diet through the issuance to them of a coupon allotment which shall have a greater monetary value than their normal expenditures for food.’1 The food stamp program is intended to increase the food purchasing power of low-income households to the point where they can afford the â€Å"Thrifty Food Plan, † the least expensive of the food purchasing plans developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.† The above quote states that the basic unit for the United States food stamps benefit program is the household. The family is described as the group of persons living under one roof who regularly buy food and prepare food in together. The food stamps program presumes that average household spends 30 percent of their entire purchasing power (computed in terms of cash on hand) on their unavoidable food needs. The food stamps program lightens the food need predicament of the family qualifying as belonging to the poverty line population of the United States. The United States government steps into the poverty level family home by giving them subsidy that is enough to close the gap between the household’s expected contribution to food purchases and the cost of the Thrifty Food Plan. The food stamps are given to the qualified families through booklets of coupons denominated in United States dollar amounts or by an Electronic Benefit Transfer card technology program. Some of the United States groceries are authorized to accept the food stamps as payment for the food bought from their